Table 3 Role of exosomes in progression of cancer

Regulation of cell proliferation

Glioma cell

EGFRvIII

Activate downstream AKT signaling in recipient cell

[99]

BC cell

EGFR, HER2

Activate MAPK signaling to promote monocyte survival in the inflammatory niche

[100]

GC cell

Undetermined

Promote the proliferation of GC cell by activating AKT and MAPK signalings

[101]

CAFs

miR-3656

Promote the development and progression of ESCC by activating AKT signaling

[102]

CAFs

miR-20a

Promote the progression of NSCLC through targeting PTEN

[105]

Regulation of cell death

M2 TAMs

miR-21

Suppress apoptosis of GC cell via targeting PTEN

[110]

BC cell

tRF-16-K8J7K1B

Reduce drug-induced cell apoptosis by targeting TRAIL

[113]

Melanoma cell

miR-211-5p

Inhibit pyroptosis in recipient cell

[118]

CAFs

miR-522

Suppress ferroptosis in GC cell by targeting ALOX15

[121]

Adipocyte

MTTP

Suppress ferroptosis in CRC

[122]

Osteosarcoma cell

miR‑144‑3p

Promote ferroptosis in osteosarcoma by targeting ZEB1

[123]

Regulation of angiogenesis

GC cell

miR-301a-3p

Inhibit HIF-1α degradation through targeting PHD3

[129]

Endothelial cell

VEGFA

Promote angiogenesis of HCC

[133]

CAFs

VEGFA

Promote angiogenesis of CRC

[134]

GC cell

circSHKBP1

Promote angiogenesis of GC by targeted regulating the miR-582-3p/HUR/VEGF axis

[135]

PC cell

miR-30b-5p

Promote angiogenesis of PC by inhibiting GJA1

[136]

OC cell

miR-205

Promote angiogenesis of OC

[137]

M2 TAMs

miR-155-5p, miR-221-5p

Promote angiogenesis of PC by targeting E2F2

[138]

MSCs

miR-100

Suppress in vitro angiogenesis of BC through modulating the mTOR/HIF-1α/VEGF signaling axis Regulation of cancer metabolism

[139]

Regulation of cancer metabolism

MSCs

si-PYCR1

Inhibit aerobic glycolysis of BlC cell

[147]

GC cell

lncRNA CCAT1

Augment glycolysis in GC cell

[150]

BC cell

miR-105

Enhance glycolysis in CAFs to fuel adjacent cancer cell

[158]

BC cell

ITGB4

Induce mitophagy and glycolysis in CAFs

[159]

CRC cell

HSPC111

Promote CRC liver metastasis by reprogramming lipid metabolism

[163]

GC cell

lncAKR1C2

Promotes GC lymph node metastasis by regulating fatty acid metabolis

[165]

PC cell

ACADM

Promote the gemcitabine-resistance in PCs via increasing hydrolysis of medium-and long-chain fatty acids

[166]

M2 TAMs

miR-193b-3p

Promote glutamine uptake of PCs by targeting TRIM62

[172]

CAFs

LINC01614

Enhance the glutamine uptake in LUAD cell

[173]

CAFs

Metabolites

Provide metabolites to fuel the growth of PrC

[174]

PC cell

AM

Promote lipolysis in adipocytes

[179]

BC cell

miR-204-5p

Induce leptin signaling pathway in WAT

[180]

CRC cell

miR-195a-5p, miR-125b-1-3p

Induce skeletal muscle wasting by targeting Bcl-2-mediated apoptosis

[183]

CRC cell

GDF-15

Induce apoptosis of myocytes via regulating Bcl-2/caspase-3 pathways Regulation of tumor immunology

[184]

Regulation of tumor immunology

NK cell

let-7b-5p

Inhibit cell proliferation of PCs by targeting CDK6

[200]

BlC cell

circTRPS1

Induce CD8+ T cell exhaustion

[205]

HCC cell

circCCAR1

Promote CD8+ T cell dysfunction

[206]

PrC cell

IL-8

Impede the function of CD8+ T cell

[207]

CCL cell

miR-155

Induce MDSCs

[213]

Glioma cell

miR-10a, miR-21

Induce MDSCs

[214]

G-MDSCs

miR-93-5p

Promote the differentiation of M2 TAMs

[215]

M2 TAMs

ApoE

Confer ICB resistance in GC

[231]

Melanoma cell

PD-L1

Contribute to immunosuppression

[233]

LAUD cell

miR-16-5p

Down-regulate PD-L1 expression

[234]

OC cell

miR-155-5p

Down-regulate PD-L1 expression in macrophages

[235]

PC cell

PD-L1

Inhibit the efficacy of CAR-T cell Regulation of cancer metastasis

[247]

Regulation of cancer metastasis

BC cell

miR-200

Promote EMT of recipient cell

[260]

M2 TAMs

miR-23a-3p

Promote EMT and angiogenesis in HCC

[262]

BC cell

circPOKE

Inhibit EMT of BC cell

[263]

Cancer cell

Cargos

Regulate CTCs Reviewed in

[265]

BC cell

Cav-1

Promote formation of PMNs in lung

[272]

Lung carcinoma cell

Undetermined

Promote formation of immunologically tolerant PMNs in lung

[274]

NSCLC

Undetermined

Drive immunosuppressive macrophages in PMNs

[275]

GC cell

miR-92a‐3p

Facilitate lung PMNs formation

[276]

NSCLC

snRNAs

Promote lung PMNs formation

[277]

PC, GC, BC, CRC cell

MIF, Interigin, EGFR, miR-25-3p, miR‑519a‑3p

Promote liver PMNs formation

[279,280,281,282,283]

Hepatocyte

miR-25, 92, 103

Promote a metastatic tumor microenvironment

[285]

PC cell

miR-301a

Promote metastasis via M2 TAMs polarization

[287]

BC cell

miR-122

Promote metastasis via reprogramming glucose metabolism in PMNs

[290]

metabolism in PMNs

MCs

Lipids

Foster BC metastasis via metabolic reprogramming

[293]

GABA-induced CRC cell

miR‑223‑3p

Promote migration of CRC cell Regulation of resistance to cancer therapy

[325]

CRC cell

Regulation of resistance to cancer therapy

OC cell

miR-6836

Confer to cisplatin-resistance

[336]

CAFs

miR-3173–5p

Suppress ferroptosis and induce gemcitabine resistance in PC cells

[340]

CAFs

DACT3-AS1

Confer sensitivity of GC cells to oxaliplatin through SIRT1-induced ferroptosis

[341]

CRC cell

circATG4B

Induces oxaliplatin resistance in CRC by promoting autophagy

[345]

LAUD cell

SNHG7

Enhance docetaxel resistance in LAUD through promoting autophagy

[346]

CAFs

LINC00355

Promote EMT and chemoresistance in CRC

[352]

CAFs

LncRNA H19

Promote the stemness and chemoresistance of CRC

[357]

Glioblastoma

circ-METRN

Promote radioresistance in glioblastoma

[367]

ESCC cell

miR-340-5p

Promote radioresistance of ESCC

[371]

NSCLC

ANGPTL4

Promote radioresistance of lung cancer by inhibiting ferroptosis

[372]

CAFs

DNM3OS

Confer radioresistance of ESCC

[374]

M2 TAMs

circ_0001610

Reduce radiosensitivity in endometrial cancer

[375]

NSCLC cell

wtEGFR

Transfer targeted therapy resistance

[383]

M2 TAMs

ceRNA

Promote targeted therapy resistance in NSCLC

[384]

BC cell

Linc00969

Induce trastuzumab resistance in BC

[387]

RCC cell

LncARSR

Promote sunitinib resistance in RCC

[389]